李(Plum)是重要的核果类果树之一,为蔷薇科(Rosaceae)李属(Prunus)。中国李(Prunus salicina L.)起源于我国,有着极丰富的种质资源、广泛的分布地区以及悠久的栽培历史。李果实美丽、芳香、多汁且营养丰富,是深受人们喜爱的特色水果,兼具较高的经济价值和功能保健价值[1]。FAO[2]统计显示,我国李产量占世界李产量的55.6%,是世界第一的生产大国;但是我国李产业化程度较低,单位面积产量仅为世界平均产量的77.3%,缺乏自主知识产权、商品性高、功能性突出的李品种,出口量仅占世界总产量的0.54%。这客观地反映出我国李种质资源发掘利用不足、优质李育种进程缓慢的事实。开展李种质资源优异性状的深入研究是加快李育种进程、提升果品国际竞争力的重要基础和前提[3]。
随着人们生活品质的不断提高,对水果的需求从“数量多”逐渐转变为“质量高”。消费者对于高质量水果的定义,不再仅从酸、可溶性糖、可溶性固形物和维生素C 含量等常规品质性状进行评价,果实外观和花青素含量也成为鉴定评价的重要指标。李果实颜色对消费者的选择有重要影响,是很容易观察和识别不同品种的显著特征。红色往往代表着果实成熟度高,口感和风味较好。李果皮丰富的颜色使其为果色改良的育种目标提供一定的基础。李果皮中花青素(类黄酮物质)的种类、含量和组分与果皮颜色形成密切相关,是改善果实外观商品性的关键[4]。花青素是一类植物水溶性色素,同时也是有效的天然自由基清除剂,具有抗氧化、改善肝功能、预防心血管疾病、抗癌、抗炎和保护视力等功能保健作用[5-8],是一种有益健康的物质。因此,人们对培育具有不同颜色、富含花青素的新品种和提升果实营养品质持有浓厚的兴趣[9-11]。
多年来,人们已对不同的园艺植物开展果皮颜色与花青素研究,并取得了许多重要的发现和结论。笔者将通过总结前人的研究报道,对李果实果皮颜色的遗传多样性、成色物质花青苷的构成、果皮彩色的分子遗传机制以及环境内外因素对李果皮颜色的影响等方面的研究进展进行整理,以期为人们更好地深入开展李种质资源的针对性收集和优异性状的精细评价提供一定帮助。
世界的李属植物有19~40 种[12],其中最常见的李种类多为栽培中国李(Prunus salicina L.)、欧洲李(Prunus domestica L.)、樱桃李(Prunus cerasifera Ehrhart.)及部分野生种,例如美洲李(Prunus americana L.)、加拿大李(Prunus nigra Ait.)和黑刺李(Prunus spinosa L.)[13]。不同种类李的果实颜色丰富程度及遗传变异存在较大差别。Treutter 等[14]对28 份德国欧洲李及其种间材料的果皮颜色进行鉴定,发现多数欧洲李果皮为蓝色和深蓝色,少部分呈现红色和黄色。另有学者对29 份意大利李品种鉴定后发现,欧洲李还具有黄色、黄绿色和红色果皮颜色类型[15]。与栽培欧洲李不同,耿文娟[16]对我国新疆野生欧洲李的果皮颜色研究表明,成熟李果皮是淡黄绿色,表面着暗紫红偏蓝色。野生樱桃李果皮颜色主要为黑色、黄色、红色和紫红色[17-18]。中国李果皮颜色丰富,拥有绿色、黄色、粉色、红色、紫色、蓝色和黑色等色彩,侧面反映了我国李种质资源多样性丰富程度(图1)。林存学等[19]对黑龙江省96份李种质资源的表型多样性研究指出,李果皮颜色的多样性指数较高,变异范围较大。与此同时,Kwon等[20]依照UPVO[21]描述标准调查了来自亚洲地区的63份中国李品种果皮颜色,发现49份果皮为红色类型,占李果皮颜色类型的78%。郁香荷等[22]通过调查405 份中国李种质资源发现,果皮颜色遗传类型多以紫红为主,占李果皮颜色类型的55.4%;红色次之,橙黄色居中,紫黑色和粉红色较少,而蓝黑色最少。因此,中国李被认为是研究蔷薇科果树颜色性状的模式植物[23]。
图1 中国李种质资源果皮颜色多样性
Fig.1 Peel color diversity of Chinese plum germplasm resources
水果表皮中的色素通常包括5 大类,包括花青素(anthocyanidin)、花翠素(delphinidin)、甲基花青素(peonidin)、甲基花翠素(petunidin)和二甲花翠素(malvidin),常以花色苷(糖苷)[24]和花青苷的形式存在。花青素是重要的酚类化合物,是类黄酮色素中含量和分布最广泛的一类物质[25-26],对植物的色泽、品质和风味等有一定的影响,在果皮着色时期扮演重要的关键角色[27-28],主要负责各种颜色(例如粉红色,红色,紫色和蓝色)的形成。花青素的生物合成流程根据Lin 等[29]和Jaakola[30]总结如图2。花青素的基本结构单元为3,5,7-三羟基-2-苯基苯并吡喃阳离子,即花色基元[31]。常见的花青素为天竺葵素(pelargonidin)、矢车菊色素(cyanidin)、翠雀花素(delphinidin)、芍药色素(peonidin)、矮牵牛素(petunidin)及锦葵色素(malvidin)6大类[32],而橙凤仙素(aurantinidin)、蓝花丹素(capensinidin)、欧天芥菜色素(europinidin)、报春色素(hirsutidin)、墨白花丹素(pulchellidin)和松香色素(rosinidin)等则较为少见[33]。它们的衍生物携带基团(R’、R5’、R5、R6 和R7)类型(H、OH 和OCH3)各异而呈现不同的颜色,例如矢车菊色素(OH-H-OH-H-OH)呈红色至深红色,天竺葵素(H-H-OH-H-OH)呈橙色至粉色,翠雀花素(OH-OH-OH-H-OH)呈紫色至蓝色,锦葵色素(OCH3-OCH3-OH-H-OH)和矮牵牛素(OH-OCH3-OH-H-OH)呈现紫色[34]。矢车菊素-3-葡萄糖苷(cyanidin-3-glucoside,C3G)、矢车菊素-3-芸香糖苷(cyanidin-3-rutinoside,C3R)、芍药素-3-葡萄糖苷(peonidin-3-glucoside,P3G)和芍药素-3-芸香糖苷(peonidin-3-rutinoside,P3R)占李果皮花青苷总量的99%。其中,C3G 和C3R 普遍存在于不同欧洲李品种中,而P3G 花青苷含量在不同欧洲李品种间表现不规律。对Jojo、Valor、Čačanska rodna 和Čačanska najbolja 等栽培欧洲李果皮的花青素进行了定量分析,发现在成熟欧洲李果皮中含量(w)最多的是C3R(4.1~23.4 mg·100 g-1),其次为P3R、C3G、C3X(花青素-3-木糖苷)和P3G,欧洲李果实在成熟过程中花青素含量增加并使花青苷之间的比例发生改变[35]。
图2 花色苷生物合成途径
Fig.2 Anthocyanin biosynthesis pathway
CHI.查尔酮异构酶;CHS.查尔酮合成酶;F3H.黄烷酮-3-羟化酶;F3’H.黄烷酮-3’-羟化酶;F3’5’H.黄烷酮-3’,5’-羟化酶;DFR.黄烷酮醇4-还原酶;UFGT.葡萄糖基转移酶;LDOX.无色花色素双加氧酶;ANS.花青素合成酶;OMT.O-甲基转移酶。
CHI.Chalconeisomerase;CHS.Chalcone synthase;F3H.Flavanone 3-hydroxylase;F3’H.Flavanone 3’-hydroxylase;F3’5’H.Flavanone3’,5’-hydroxylase;DFR.Dihydroflavonol 4-reductase;UFGT.Glucosyltransferase;LDOX.Leucoanthocyanidin dioxygenase;ANS.Anthocyanidin synthase;OMT.O-methyltrans-ferase.
王燕[36]对3种不同果皮颜色野生樱桃李的花色苷组分进行研究,黄果皮不含花色苷,紫果皮含有矢车菊-3-半乳糖苷、矢车菊-3-葡萄糖苷、矢车菊-3-芸香糖苷、矢车菊(乙酰基)3-葡萄糖苷4 种主要成分花色苷;红果皮除含有上述花色苷外,还有矢车菊-3-木糖苷和一种未知花色苷。樱桃李中含量最多的是矢车菊-3-半乳糖苷和矢车菊-3-葡萄糖苷,红果皮中矢车菊-3-芸香糖苷含量略高于紫果皮。通过比较14个中国李品种果皮花青苷含量,发现不同李品种间花色素苷、类黄酮和类胡萝卜素的含量均存在极显著差异[10]。李果实花青苷含量随着果实颜色加深而增加,黄色或绿色果实的果皮不含花青苷[37]。
花青素生物合成的发育调节网络和特定调节剂已在大多数主要蔷薇科果树中开展了研究,参与早期和晚期花青素生物合成途径的结构基因已成功分离,即植物器官可见颜色和图案变化由MYB基因决定[38-41]。在蔷薇科苹果(Malus)中,MYB 基因(Md-MYB1、MdMYBA、MdMYB10 和MdMYB114)控制花青素的调节并决定果皮花青素的生物合成[42-45]。此外,梨(Pyrus)果实中PyMYB10、PyMYB114、Pc-MYB10、PbMYB10b和PbMYB9[46-49]、桃(Prunus persica)和扁桃(Prunus dulcis)中的3个MYB10控制基因(PpMYB10.1、PpMYB10.2 和PpMYB10.3)[50-51]、甜樱桃(Prunus avium)中的 PavMYBA 和 Pav-MYB10.1[52-54]、草莓中的FaMYB10[55]、中国李中的Pc-MYB10.654[56]以及杏中的PaMYB10[57]等基因已被证实对果实的花青苷积累有重要作用[58]。
许多报道已在李果实颜色研究方面开展了深入分析。González等[59]通过研究4份中国李果实发现,花青苷广泛存在于不同颜色的果皮和果肉中,不同品种间的花青苷种类和组分含量差异较大,8 种基因(CHS、CHI、F3H、DFR、LDOX、UFGT、PsMYB1 和LAR)参与花青苷合成。进一步对欧洲李花青苷合成途径中编码各类酶的6 个候选基因PAL、CHS、DFR、ANS、UFGT1和UFGT2表达研究发现,相对于紫色性状,CHS基因在紫绿色、黄色和绿色果皮中呈下调表达,UFGTs 基因在黄色和绿色果皮中呈上调表达[60]。Fiol等[23]确定了中国李中MYB10 LG3簇的内含子和基因间区域的高度变异,其中至少包含3个MYB10.1基因拷贝。PcMYB10.6是影响紫叶李品种中花青素生物合成的主要基因,该基因在所有花青素器官中高度表达[56]。国内研究者对脆红李和羌脆李研究表明,PsPAL、PsCHS、PsCHI、PsF3H、PsDFR、PsANS和PsUFGT基因转录水平在果皮中较高,在果肉中较低。PsPAL、PsCHS、PsF3H、PsANS 和PsUFGT 基因表达量与花色苷含量呈一定正相关,其中,PsPAL 和PsUFGT 基因的表达量与花色苷含量呈极显著正相关[61]。对秋姬李进行不同温度和光照处理分析,结果表明果皮中PsMYB18基因为花色苷合成抑制因子,可抑制正调控因子PsMYB10.1 和PsbHLH3的花色苷合成诱导功能[62]。三华李类果实花青苷生物合成相关基因表达分析表明,华蜜大蜜李成熟果实颜色深可能是受c23975.graph_c0(ANS)和c19863.graph_c0(UFGT)基因表达的影响;果肉颜色更深可能是受c21951.graph_c0(CHS2)和c19863.graph_c0(UFGT)基因的影响,并发现影响果实花色苷形成的有效MYB 转录因子之一是c6572.graph_c0[63]。
花青素苷是决定果皮颜色的重要色素之一,其合成是内因和外因共同作用的结果。基因编码的酶决定了花青素苷合成的种类,而环境因子不仅能影响花青素苷生物合成的速率,而且对其积累量和稳定性产生作用。通常,环境因子既可调控花青素苷合成途径中的结构基因,也可调控调节基因,从而决定最终的花青素苷种类[64]。
光照能调节花青素合成有关酶的活性,影响果实色素积累。张国静[65]对李果实在可见光下和暗处分别处理后发现,可见光下果皮中花色苷合成速率显著高于暗处理的果实,在可见光下通过光反应产生过量的还原NADPH 调控苹果酸代谢,通过呼吸作用产生ATP 促进乙烯合成,最后通过乙烯信号调控花色苷的合成。张学英等[66]对大石早生李采用不同透光率的果袋进行对照试验,研究发现不同颜色果袋影响PAL 和UFGT 酶活性,这2 种酶活性均与花色素苷含量相关性显著;透光率与花色素苷合成表现相关性显著,透光率越高花色素苷合成量越多,果皮着色越好。另有栽培试验表明,果园地面铺设反光膜,能够增强树冠下部的光照,果皮花色苷含量显著提高,更利于果皮着色[67-68]。在光照条件下能够抑制MYBL2基因的表达,导致PAP1和PAP2基因的激活,从而有利于花青素的高水平积累[69]。
温度的高低对果实中花色素苷形成有重要影响,在一定温度范围内,高温下的光合作用及低温下的弱呼吸作用均积累了大量的碳水化合物,为花青素的合成提供了必备的物质前提。大石早生和琥珀这2 个李品种经过0 ℃和20 ℃不同温度处理,果皮中的花色素苷在20 ℃条件下迅速合成,且果皮中的花色素苷含量接近最大值,而0 ℃条件下合成很少[70]。李品种Akihime在20 ℃下光照可以诱导花青素积累,从而改善红色,而在30 ℃或黑暗条件下处理的果皮未检测到明显的花青素积累。采后适当的温度和光照条件也可以通过激活正调控因子PsMYB10.1 基因的表达,进而激活参与花青素生物合成和运输的基因,诱导Akihime 果皮中花青素的积累[71]。高温可以增强花青素相关基因的表达和李果实的呼吸作用和乙烯的合成,也直接降低了基因的表达水平。李果实花青素的含量取决于合成与降解之间的平衡[72]。李果实Aki Queen 在开始着色的1~3周内,果皮中花青苷合成对温度敏感,而在此前后高温对果实着色均没有太大的影响[73]。
水分与花青素的合成与分解有着密切的关系,并与温度因子共同作用影响花青素的含量和稳定性。研究发现高温高湿的环境会促进花色素苷的分解[74-75]。李果实发育的后期保持土壤适度干燥有利于果实增糖着色,水分过多则会造成果实着色不良,降低果实品质[76]。
果皮色泽发育的色素包括花青素、叶绿素、胡萝卜素和黄酮素,而花青苷是主要影响李果皮颜色的重要因素。花青苷的内部影响因子包括酶、糖、酸、维生素C和乙烯等激素[77]。张义等[78]对黑宝石和大红李研究表明,果皮花青苷含量与酸含量呈显著或极显著负相关;果皮中类胡萝卜素含量与果肉中可溶性糖含量呈显著正相关,这也解释了果实在成熟过程中酸不断减少的原因。而柰李的青色由类胡萝卜素和叶绿素含量决定,而非花青苷含量。植物内源激素脱落酸(abscisic acid,ABA)、吲哚乙酸(indoleacetic acid,IAA)、赤霉素(gibberellin,GA3)和乙烯协同参与调控果实花青苷积累过程。ABA 和乙烯是花青苷合成的重要诱导因子;乙烯释放量、ABA和ZT(玉米素)的含量均与花青苷含量呈极显著正相关;IAA和GA3与花青苷含量呈显著负相关;高活性的多酚氧化酶(polyphenol oxidase,PPO)将酚类物质(包括花青苷)氧化成醌形成褐色物质,这种物质与叶绿素、类胡萝卜素和类黄酮共同影响果皮色泽的最终表现[79-80]。李果实发育过程中,果皮中花青苷含量与类胡萝卜素、类黄酮含量呈负相关[80]。中国李品种抗氧化活性和总酚含量高的都为紫红色和红色,说明抗氧化活性和总酚含量较高的果皮颜色深[81]。乙烯对果实成熟有重要调控作用,而果实成熟过程中都伴随着花青苷的积累,因此乙烯可能对果实花青苷的生物合成具有重要的调控作用[82]。乙烯和乙烯利分别对安哥诺和芙蓉李处理可以增强果皮中花青素的积累,而1-甲基环丙烯(1-MCP)处理则降低花青素含量[83-84]。此外,乙烯处理显著提高了PsPAL、PsCHS、PsCHI、PsF3H、PsDFR、PsLDOX和PsUFGT这7个结构基因的表达水平,参与了花青素生物合成途径,而1-MCP处理显示出相反的效果。这进一步分析表明PsERS1、PsETR1、PsERF1a、PsERF1b、PsERF2a、PsERF3a和PsERF3b基因可能参与了花青素的生物合成途径[85]。
矿质元素在果实生长发育中起着重要的作用,不仅提供果树生长所需的营养元素,还与果皮花青苷含量有关。在果实着色期,减少P、N 和K 的含量有利于花青苷的表达,提高花色素的积累[86-87]。K、P及许多微量元素(如Mn、Mo、B和Zn)是糖代谢中许多酶的活化剂,能够促进糖分运输,增加糖含量,有利于果实花色素苷合成和积累[86]。高浓度Na+、Zn2+、Mn2+和Ca2+、Cu2+、Al3+均具有增色作用,前者能够增强花色苷的稳定性,而后者对花色苷的稳定性无显著影响;Fe2+、Fe3+和Pb2+对花色苷具有破坏作用,使花色苷的稳定性下降[88]。对5 个早熟李品种研究发现,N 含量与花青素含量呈乘幂函数曲线显著负相关,Ca、P、Fe 含量与果皮花青素含量都呈显著相关[89]。低氮量会导致酚类化合物的高积累,而高氮肥会促进类胡萝卜素和叶绿素的形成[90]。N和P 缺乏也会激活PAP1、PAP2、GL3 和MYB12 基因转录,导致花青素积累[91]。
杂交育种是一种有效的育种手段,研究性状的遗传规律可为今后的良种选育提供科学依据。核果类果树果皮颜色中,底色遗传可能是多基因的互作效应;盖色的有无则是由少数基因控制的显性或不完全显性性状。在桃果实上,红色(R2R2)与白色(r2r2)受1 对等位基因控制,表现为不完全显性;在李果实上,有色对无色为完全显性,深色对浅色在遗传上具有优势,且母本对后代影响较大[92]。韩玉虎等[93]对亨利自由授粉后代和2组不同杂交后代组合研究发现,全红果单系的比率分别为5.5%、8%和4%,桃果皮红色遗传力相对较高。早期方玉凤等[94]对果皮均为紫红色的六号李和绥棱红自然实生后代的分离情况进行研究发现,绥棱红李271株后代中,紫色和红色果实占74.07%,黄色和绿色占25.46%,有彩色与无彩色比2.93∶1;六号李193株后代中,紫色和红色果实占74.09%,黄色和绿色占25.9%,有彩色与无彩色比为2.86∶1。上述结果表明果皮有色对无色的分离比例符合3∶1遗传规律。刘文东[95]统计多个杂交组合后,认为在红×黄的杂交组合中后代果皮为黄色的占8.01%,黄×黄杂交的组合中后代果皮为黄色的占81.2%;而2个亲本是红色果的后代果皮颜色为红色的占96.5%。这表明李杂交后代果皮颜色主要受1对基因控制,且有色对无色为显性性状。
随着时代的不断发展,国外育种者在保证传统育种目标(鲜果的质量和味道)的基础上,选育了一些以富含花青素为育种目标中国李品种,这些李子正在商业种植用于加工成功能性产品,实现将食用色素转化成优质保健品,例如Queen Garnet品种,其成熟时的表皮颜色趋近黑色,果实颜色为深红色。有趣的是,黑色表皮和深红色果肉结合后,果实的花青素含量(w)异常之高,达到2770 mg·100 kg-1[96]。然而,类似的育种行为在我国的李育种进程中仍较为稀少,我国的李种质资源极其丰富,大量的富含花青素的种质资源亟待被研究和利用。
此外,李果皮颜色虽主要受花青苷影响,但同时由叶绿素、类胡萝卜素和类黄酮等成色物质共同决定最终的色泽。人体内维生素A的主要来源是类胡萝卜素,同时还具有抗氧化、免疫调节、抗癌和延缓衰老等多重功效,因此,选育富含类胡萝卜素的李品种也是育种工作的重要目标之一。
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Research progress in genetic diversity and related factors of plum peel color